活体捐献管理规定
在活体捐献方面,条例 [43,59] 规定,仅允许进行亲属间的肾脏和肝脏移植,且仅限于直系亲属(配偶、父母、成年子女或兄弟姐妹)具备捐献资格。严格禁止非亲属间的活体捐献,强化了捐献源于真诚的家庭动机、不受不当压力的伦理保障。此外,家庭同意仍为强制性要求,这体现了植根于儒家传统的文化价值观。
只有获得许可的机构和经认证的专业人员方可开展移植,且所有活动均须严格遵守临床、伦理及报告要求。该法律还对违规行为设定了明确的处罚措施,包括未经授权获取器官及违反伦理规范的行为。
通过向COTRS等国家系统进行强制性报告,确保透明度,让公众能够获取配额和结果数据,以增强公众信任。
器官捐献/移植伦理委员会
为推动人体器官移植领域伦理监管的规范化,国家卫生健康委员会于2024年5月1日生效了一套新的工作规则[59]。这些规则旨在维护人的生命尊严,保障器官捐献者与接受者的权利与福祉,并使移植实践与包括《中华人民共和国民法典》和《中华人民共和国基本医疗卫生与健康促进法》在内的国家法律法规相一致。
在新框架下,所有参与器官获取或移植的医疗机构均须成立独立的伦理委员会,具体见表2。这些委员会并非单纯的行政机构,而是以具备法律效力、透明度和独立性为目标设立的,确保任何移植活动都经过充分的伦理审查。伦理委员会须严格遵守中华医学会制定的权威伦理标准与指南。中华医学会已认可并引用世界医学协会的相关准则,其中明确禁止使用囚犯器官,仅允许在直系亲属范围内进行严格定义的活体器官捐献[35]。伦理委员会成员至少应有9人,涵盖医学、法律和伦理等多个学科领域,且其中从事移植临床工作的人员不得超过25%,以防止利益冲突。
| 表2 《国家卫生健康委关于印发人体器官移植伦理委员会工作规则的通知》
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| 第一章:总则
确立宗旨:维护人的尊严,保障人的生命健康,确保器官捐献与移植的伦理规范。
对逝者和活体器官捐献均需进行伦理审查。
强调有利原则、不伤害原则、公平原则、合法性和透明度。
第二章:委员会组成
委员会成员至少应有9人,且总人数为奇数,分别来自医学、法学、伦理学以及非本机构的社会领域。
从事人体器官移植的医生不超过委员人数的四分之一。
主任委员和副主任委员由内部选举产生,但不得在医疗机构担任临床学科或器官获取组织的领导职务。
所有成员均须接受伦理知识、法律法规知识的强制培训。
第三章:委员会工作职责
职责包括:制定伦理审查制度、审查案例、提供伦理指导以及开展伦理培训。
所有成员必须签署保密协议。
委员会须向省级卫生健康行政部门报告其成立情况、成员构成及重大议题。
第四章:伦理审查
审查须遵守5项原则:
1. 自愿无偿。
2. 知情同意。
3. 控制风险(尤其是针对活体捐献者)。
4. 公平公正。
5. 保护隐私。
逝者捐献审核:需提供死亡证明、知情同意书、捐献者评估报告等文件。
活体捐献审核:需进行身份与亲属关系核实、同意书签署、健康/风险评估以及适应症论证。
委员会评估捐献者的意愿、是否存在经济利益诱导、医疗适宜性文件的完整性,以及是否符合法律和伦理要求。
一项决定需要获得委员会三分之二以上的多数票。
第五章:监督管理
监督权归县级及以上卫生健康行政部门所有。
医疗机构对伦理审查过程负责;机构领导承担第一责任。
违反行为(例如,未经授权获取器官、虚假评价、泄露保密信息)将根据国家法律受到处罚。
未能尽职或每年缺席伦理审查会议3次以上的委员会委员将被调换。
实施
规则于2024年5月1日起施行,旨在提升中国器官移植实践的透明度、标准化和伦理诚信。
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伦理委员会的职责十分广泛。他们负责制定内部伦理审查规程,监督逝世后和活体器官捐献,并就临床环境中出现的复杂伦理问题提供咨询建议。此外,他们还需定期开展培训,确保成员及时了解现行法律、伦理标准及程序更新。所有委员会成员均须签署保密协议,以强调对捐献者和受者隐私保护的重要性。
伦理审查过程系统且严格。在涉及逝者器官捐献的案例中,委员会须对相关文件进行评估,包括死亡医学证明、知情同意书,以及捐献者评估报告的完整性等。对于活体捐献,审查则更为复杂,不仅需要提供亲属关系证明,还需进行详尽的健康与心理评估,并确认捐献者已做出知情且自愿的同意。目的是确保所有捐献均无任何胁迫或经济利益驱动,并且活体捐献者不会遭受超出伦理可接受范围的医疗伤害。
只有当至少三分之二的委员会成员同意时,才能批准相关事项。在紧急情况下,会议可采用线上方式举行,但必须保留准确的会议记录。该系统确保了灵活性和问责制。
对这些伦理委员会的监督工作由地方和省级卫生健康主管部门负责,而医疗机构本身则对合规性负有首要责任。对于被发现违反规定的机构或个人——例如未经适当伦理审批即开展移植手术,或泄露捐献者个人信息——将面临法律处罚,包括罚款、吊销执照,以及在适用情况下追究刑事责任。
中国医学专业人士的伦理声明与立场——中华医学会
在2023年于肯尼亚首都内罗毕举行的第223届世界医学协会(WMA)理事会会议上,中华医学会(编者注:中华医学会(CMA)是中国医学科技工作者依法登记的全国性、学术性、非营利性社会组织,业务上接受国家卫生健康委员会等部门的指导与管理)强调,必须遵守各国的法律法规框架,并谴责任何使用死刑犯器官的行为。该协会呼吁所有国家医学协会——尤其是那些在法律上仍允许此类做法的国家——恪守伦理标准,加强对医生的教育,并共同努力在全球范围内杜绝此类行为。
中华医学会将继续支持符合世界卫生组织原则的自给自足的捐献体系,并呼吁全球对此问题保持伦理警觉[35,60,61]。
国际反响
近日,阿舍尔(Ascher)与德尔莫尼科(Delmonico)[62,63]对中山大学的一篇文章进行了评述[27],指出中国建立了一套集中化的器官追踪与分配监管体系,同时完善了提高透明度的机制,包括在《中国器官捐献和移植发展报告》(原《中国器官移植发展报告》,自2023年起正式更名)中每年发布等待名单和器官分配的相关数据[44–50]。这种做法与国际标准——如美国器官共享联合网络(UNOS)或德国器官移植基金会(DSO)所遵循的标准一致。
关于死刑执行犯是否可以作为器官捐献者这一反复出现的争议,需要从两个角度加以考量。他们仍然被认为具有表达自由意志的能力,并且在法律上并未被剥夺同意器官捐献的民事权利——这一点与美国、新加坡以及中国台湾地区的情况类似。
然而,在临床实践中,中国大陆规范器官捐献与获取的监管框架(图1),以及必须由遵循中华医学会伦理标准的伦理委员会参与的制度安排,实际上排除了使用死刑犯器官的可能性。根据现行规定,器官仅可来源于在医疗机构重症监护病房(ICU)内死亡的个体。在任何器官获取之前,必须依法出具医学死亡证明,该要求在所有司法管辖区均适用。该死亡证明由神经科医师或重症医学科医师出具,从程序上明确排除了其他执行场所。依据《中华人民共和国刑事诉讼法》(第261至263条)等法律规定,死刑执行场所需远离公共区域,且死亡的判定与正式认证工作由法医负责。
上述程序与美国(部分司法管辖区,并非所有州均保留死刑)、中国台湾地区以及新加坡的做法一致(表3)。这些国家和地区同样保留死刑,且在历史上曾使用死刑犯器官来源,并未在法律层面明确禁止该做法[64,66–69]。然而,从伦理标准上,该类来源器官的使用是被禁止的。
上述程序与美国(部分司法管辖区,并非所有州均保留死刑)、新加坡及中国台湾地区的做法一致。这些国家和地区同样保留死刑,且在历史上曾使用死刑犯器官来源,并未在法律层面明确禁止该做法[64,66–69],但从伦理标准上,该类来源器官的使用是被禁止的。
此外,中国还依托由国家卫生健康委员会及各省级卫生健康行政部门组成的中央化监管系统(即中国器官捐献与移植体系的第五大支柱),对器官捐献与移植流程实施全链条审计与监督,从而构建起一道额外的责任保障机制。
正如前文关于捐献与获取的章节所述,器官捐献与移植的过程包括捐献者的知情同意。在重症监护室(ICU)宣布脑死亡或循环死亡后,需获得家庭同意以及独立伦理委员会的批准。在此过程中,尤为重要的是,出具死亡原因医学证明是器官获取的前提条件;而在中国,死亡的法律认定遵循多层级程序:首先由医疗机构进行医学认证,随后向公安机关办理登记,并经法定公证机构予以公证,所有环节均由指定机构在严格监管下负责实施。[69]
结论
总之,过去30年来,中国在器官捐献与移植的法律框架上进行了根本性改革。这些变革已得到国际认可,并以法律形式载入《中华人民共和国民法典》及《人体器官捐献和移植条例》,同时通过对中国刑法的修订进一步强化。各伦理委员会在《赫尔辛基宣言》和世界医学会国际标准的指导下开展工作。相关数据向世界卫生组织透明报告,并在年度出版物及各中心单独报告中予以呈现。这些政策反映了中国移植事业更广泛的转型进程。从以往侧重程序性规范,到如今更加关注质量、伦理合规与患者安全。2024年监管框架构建了一套法律坚实、伦理健全的制度体系,既保障了捐献者与接受者的权益,又促进了中国器官移植事业的可持续发展。
致谢
作者们感谢北京大学全球健康发展研究院的伯恩哈德·施瓦特兰德博士(Bernhard Schwartländer, MD),他曾任德国外交部全球卫生特使;同时,也感谢德国驻华大使馆对本研究提供的宝贵见解与指导。此外,作者们还特别感谢秦骥伟博士在图表准备与制作过程中给予的协助。 (全文完)
(本文作者:南山,医学博士、哲学博士[1,2];王海波,医学学士、理学硕士、公共卫生硕士[1,3];黄洁夫,医学博士、哲学博士[4])
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